Arushi Srivastava

Cultural Appropriation of Mindfulness

“Appropriation is derived from the Latin word appropriare, or to make one’s own, which is from the Latin root proprius, to own property, and cultural appropriation highlights the borrowing of ideas, practices, and sacred philosophies from other culture by another group that has more resources (Surmities et al., 2017).”

What is “correct” Mindfulness?

Amidst the rising promotion of the “hustle culture” in the West, mindfulness has taken a front seat. While mindfulness was adopted from East Asia, with given standard principles and ethical regulations of its practice, people seem to have their own ways and predefined outcomes when engaging with mindfulness. From corporations to schools to mental health settings, everyone advocates for mindfulness to “think positive”, “gain control”, and “improve mood.” These blurred, individualistic Western definitions of mindfulness often deviate from the original Buddhist principle of enlightenment and acceptance, making it difficult for practitioners to acknowledge the cultural roots of the practice. With the rising popularity of mindfulness in American culture, the canonical Buddhist terminologies were muted and replaced with more secular-sounding scientific and commercial linguistic frames (Woodhead, 2015), which helped to attune the practice to the population’s needs. This adaptation led people to consider mindfulness a secular, goal-oriented technique that provides therapeutic benefits. On the contrary, mindfulness has historically been cultivated within a sangha to gain insight into the true nature of reality to attain enlightenment and reduce suffering for oneself and others.

What is Mindfulness?

Origin of Mindfulness

‘Mindfulness’, as described in the 21st century, is “paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally” (Kabat-Zinn, 1994). The history of mindfulness can be traced back to the Buddhist sacred texts, especially the “Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta” or “The Discourse on the Establishing of Mindfulness.” About 2500 years ago, Buddhism was born in Northern India when a man named Siddhartha Gautam started sharing his teachings with the public. He eventually became known as the “Buddha” or the “awakened one”. Buddha was known to have achieved liberation from suffering, and his teachings were just a way for people to achieve liberation. Out of all his theories, the most prominent ones are called the Four Noble Truths.

1) The Existence of Suffering (Dukkha), the first Noble Truth, acknowledges the existence of suffering by all human beings.

2) The Cause of Suffering (Samudaya), the second Noble Truth, identifies the cause of suffering as craving and attachment.

3) The cessation of Suffering (Nirodha), which is the third Noble Truth, provides hope by stating that it is possible to end suffering by refraining from the origins of suffering.

4) The path to the cessation of Suffering (Magga), the fourth Noble Truth, provides a path that leads to the cessation of suffering. The Buddha highlights the Noble Eightfold Path, a set of eight interconnected principles that lead to a life free from suffering. The Noble Eightfold Paths are – Right Concentration, Right Mindfulness, Right View, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort.

One of the prominent factors in Buddha’s Noble Eightfold Path is “Right Mindfulness” (Samma sati). This seventh factor proposes that mindfulness is not an ethically neutral practice and instead requires a deliberate ethical prejudgement of what is considered skilful (kusala) and unskilful (akusala) (Kang & Whittingham, 2010). The term ‘right’ signifies that the practice has some fundamental principles, which, when followed, lead to reduced suffering for self or others. This essentially signifies that to practice mindfulness in alignment with Buddhism, it’s crucial to have an ethical judgment and understanding of the practice.

“Unfortunately, today’s Western mindfulness practice often gets translated into an individualistic technique that is highly outcome-oriented.”

How culture impacts mindfulness practice

The distinction in how one perceives the practice and goals of mindfulness can also be attributed to cultural factors, which often shape people’s beliefs, behaviors and practices. Decades of research on cultural psychology delineates how the idea of “self” is situated within a larger social context. For instance, while the West may focus more on ‘individuality’ and ‘independence’, the East focuses more on ‘interdependence’ and ‘social connectedness.’ Interestingly, this underlying idea of ‘I’ vs ‘We’ also perpetuates mindfulness in the Western community. Primarily, it’s crucial to acknowledge that the Buddhist principles of mindfulness promote sharing the practice with a sangha or a community setting. It is not an isolated or solitary technique meant to explore periods of silence; instead, it is an ethical, spiritual practice aimed towards spiritual transformation with an ultimate goal towards liberation. The Buddhist goals are not for the “self” entirely but instead for the betterment of civilization through mindfulness (Ishikawa, 2018). Unfortunately, today’s Western mindfulness practice often gets translated into an individualistic technique that is highly outcome-oriented.

Practicing ‘Right Mindfulness’

Marketing mindfulness, as a ‘problem-solving’ technique, promotes it as an all-purpose practice to reduce stress, increase work productivity, and tackle sleep issues, among a host of outcomes – all of which deviate from the main purpose of seeking liberation. This goal-driven approach often strips away the meaning and non-judgmental acceptance of the present moment, ultimately making ‘feeling better’ the primary goal. While it’s encouraging to witness people actively engage in mindfulness for their self-growth, engaging in the practice “ethically” is equally crucial while being mindful of the practice holistically and not just contextually. Learning the core of the Buddhist principles of mindfulness opens the possibility of connecting people with culturally appropriate practice.

Arushi is a recent Master’s graduate in Applied Psychology from Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai, and a prospective Ph.D. applicant to Social Psychology programs. She is currently working as a Research Assistant at the Emotions and Emotion Regulation Lab, at UC Berkeley, and James Cook University. One of her research interests is to explore how mindfulness can help enhance well- being and interpersonal/societal relationships. She herself has been a mindfulness practitioner for three years now and enjoys trying different types of meditation practices.

Surmitis, K. A., Fox, J., & Gutierrez, D. (2018). Meditation and appropriation: Best practices for counselors who utilize meditation. Counseling and Values, 63(1), 4-16.

Woodhead, L. (2014). Tactical and strategic religion. In N. M. Dessing, N. Jeldtoft, J. S. Nielsen, & L. Woodhead (Eds.), Everyday lived Islam in Europe (pp. 9–22). Farnham, U.K.: Ashgate.

Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144–156. doi:10.1093/clipsy/bpg016.

Kang, C., & Whittingham, K. (2010). Mindfulness: A dialogue between Buddhism and clinical psychology. Mindfulness, 1, 161-173.

Ishikawa, M. (2018). Mindfulness in western contexts perpetuates oppressive realities for minority cultures: The consequences of cultural appropriation. SFU Educational Review, 11(1).

Moving Beyond the Headlines

What is the real meaning?

Does the scientific content that we read always mean what it claims? As readers and often as fast-paced readers, it’s unsurprising that we swiftly jump to conclusions and make confident inferences based on the headlines and quick skims of scientific studies. These inferences might then slide into conversations with our social groups, who may also believe those inferences to be true. But at the same time, this ‘sharing’ needs to come with a caveat that false information can mold the actual information in a way that does not represent the actual phenomenon and may lead to harmful conclusions and misleading beliefs. In alignment with this view, one of the studies highlighted that misinformation threatens one’s ability to form evidence-based opinions on issues of societal importance.

To share an example, I recently came across a scientific research paper that very interestingly read: “Minding Your Own Business? Mindfulness Decreases Prosocial Behavior for People With Independent Self-Construals.” Instantly, I framed this idea that people with independent self-construals (individuals who follow individualistic values) would experience a decrease in prosocial behavior (behavior through which people benefit others, including helping, cooperating, comforting, sharing, and donating) if they practiced meditation. This seemed different from the usual trends I had observed while reading studies about the effects of mindfulness on human behavior.

Upon reading the paper, I came to two conclusions:

a) if individuals from independent self-construals (individualistic) practiced mindfulness, it would lead to a decrease in their prosocial behavior, and
b) if individuals with interdependent self-construals (collectivists) practiced mindfulness, it would lead to an increase in their prosocial behavior.

Essentially, self-construal (one’s identification with individualistic and collectivistic values) will influence how mindfulness relates to prosocial behavior. A closer examination revealed that the researchers tested levels of mindfulness based on just one session of mindfulness and did not measure mindfulness after this session. Secondly, they stated that “Mindfulness could amplify the effects of self-construals on prosocial behavior by enhancing self-awareness,” which links mindfulness to self-awareness, but this claim was neither measured nor tested in the study. Lastly, since this study was conducted during the pandemic, it seems unclear if the researchers controlled other factors (like meditation practice, stress levels, family dynamics, and increased number of individuals who needed help) that could be influencing mindfulness or prosocial behavior, thereby possibly affecting the results.

This led me to wonder about the opinions I would have believed had I just stopped at the headline. This reflection calls for a critical approach to studying scientific articles. When these sensationalized headlines are perceived incorrectly, they could shape our opinions, decisions and behavior.

The two primary stakeholders that can work synergistically to move beyond this quandary are the scientists and the consumers of these findings.

“When these sensationalized headlines are perceived incorrectly, they could shape our opinions, decisions and behavior.”

What can researchers do?

It’s a great privilege to contribute to society through one’s work, and conducting transformative research is one such powerful way. Clearly, this job comes with an immense responsibility of producing authentic, transparent, and effective work that adds to the existing knowledge base and is easily accessible and communicable to the general audience who might not necessarily be familiar with the specific domain being researched. Thus, as researchers, it becomes our responsibility to design and present studies in a way that is authentic to the readers. How we then frame our findings and “take-aways” should be exerted with caution.

A few considerations that can help the researchers tackle this issue are:

An exhaustive command of the research topics– The researcher must be well-versed with the constructs that they are investigating in terms of the different ways that it’s defined and studied, the previous work that has been done considering those variables, the current trend, how it relates to the other variables being studied- to name a few. This is necessary because it allows them to structure their study within the huge body of literature and helps them frame a narrative for their research, tying up components like why their study is necessary and what research gaps it will fill within the broader field. Instead, having vague ideas may not only present inauthentic information regarding the phenomena but may also disrupt the initial narrative of the paper, therefore promoting misleading conclusions.
A clear and coherent narrative– The next step that usually follows the assemblage of ideas is the presentation of those ideas in a narrative that makes sense to the scientific community and the general audience. The authors must strike this balance while ensuring they present their research in an accessible language. This can be achieved by using active voice, correct punctuation, framing short sentences, and omitting unnecessary words. Having clarity of concept is equally important as having efficient communication skills to present ideas.
Considering diverse approaches to study the phenomena– Often in the fields like psychology, researchers usually study phenomena that are not tangibly observable, like emotions, motivations, mindfulness, and happiness. Hence, it becomes essential to design robust studies that can capture these phenomena as they occur and produce reliable and valid results. The researchers could adopt a multi-method approach to investigate the questions to gain a broader sense of the construct. For instance, initially in cultural studies, the core methodology adopted to study cultural differences was ethnography (i.e. collecting data through observation and interviews), which is later used to conclude how societies function. However, it becomes difficult to study individual-level differences on varied psychological constructs that might arise due to cultural differences. And this would lead to generalizing the findings to an entire culture. To overcome this and similar barriers, the current cultural psychologists have increasingly started to use a multi-method approach in studying culture, like experiments, daily diary designs, physiological data collection, etc. This stresses on the fact that to produce a valid and reliable study, it’s critical to design robust studies, measure the constructs appropriately, and analyze the data correctly.

“Hence everything we read should be approached with a critical stance and active engagement with the content.”

What can the readers do?

Similarly, as readers, we too hold the responsibility of examining the information mindfully before considering it authentic. Hence everything we read should be approached with a critical stance and active engagement with the content. This opens the avenue to understand a phenomenon through a diverse and multi-perspective lens, making us less likely to believe something at its face value.

It’s all the more crucial to be cautious with studies that make medical or therapeutic claims. For instance, a scientific paper that I recently read on the efficacy of guided imagery on PTSD mentioned the technique as one that utilizes active imagination to elicit positive feelings and images to reach one’s desired goals or to elicit desirable physical responses like reduced stress, anxiety, etc. However, without prior knowledge, or any clarification from the authors, the readers may confound the technique as mere positive or magical thinking to reach one’s goals. Some may even confuse it with mental imagery, which is deliberately eliciting prior stressful events that may exacerbate PTSD symptoms. Therefore, it’s crucial to be conscious of the authenticity of the content we consume and, more importantly, share.

Hence, a few ideas that the readers can consider while reading scientific studies include consulting various resources/studies on similar topics before making any decisions or claims about the information, checking the reliability of the source that presents the information, reading thoroughly and critically by asking themselves questions like “How does this relate to real life?,” “How would the researchers have studied/measured this particular construct?,” “Do other studies also talk about similar trends?.” Such a thorough engagement with the content can help us think through the information we consume.

Concluding thoughts

This brings us to an idea that stresses the active use of critical thinking, consideration of multiple perspectives, and thorough examination from researchers studying various phenomena and the readers consuming the information about those phenomena. With an adoption of a structured framework around how we approach conducting/presenting research and how we frame conclusions while reading scientific ideas, we have a possibility, if not an obligation, to move beyond the headlines

Arushi Srivastava

Arushi is a recent Master’s graduate in Applied Psychology from Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai, and a prospective Ph.D. applicant to Social Psychology programs. She is currently working as a Research Assistant at the Emotions and Emotion Regulation Lab, at UC Berkeley, and James Cook University. One of her research interests is to explore how mindfulness can help enhance well- being and interpersonal/societal relationships. She herself has been a mindfulness practitioner for three years now and enjoys trying different types of meditation practices.

References

Eisenberg, N., Eggum-Wilkens, N. D., & Spinrad, T. L. (2015). The development of prosocial behavior.

Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological review, 98(2), 224.

Poulin, M. J., Ministero, L. M., Gabriel, S., Morrison, C. D., & Naidu, E. (2021). Minding your own business? Mindfulness decreases prosocial behavior for people with independent self-construals. Psychological science, 32(11), 1699-1708.

Strauss, J. L., Calhoun, P. S., & Marx, C. E. (2009). Guided imagery as a therapeutic tool in posttraumatic stress disorder. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, 363-373.

Steil, R., Fischer, A., Gutermann, J., & Rosner, R. (2022). Mental imagery in adolescent PTSD patients after child abuse: a comparison with matched healthy controls. BMC psychiatry, 22(1), 1-14.

Van der Linden, S., Leiserowitz, A., Rosenthal, S., & Maibach, E. (2017). Inoculating the public against misinformation about climate change. Global Challenges, 1(2), 1600008.

Trait Mindfulness and Relationship Satisfaction: The Role of Forgiveness Among Couples (Roberts et al., 2020)

Trait Mindfulness and Relationship Satisfaction: The Role of Forgiveness Among Couples

(Roberts et al., 2020)

By Arushi Srivastava

“How can I have a more satisfying relationship?”

We have pondered this question at some point in our relations, and this is precisely what probed the researchers from Florida State University to explore. The benefits of a satisfying relationship on our mental and physical health are widely noted. The motivation to lead a healthy life encourages individuals to seek factors that promote relationship satisfaction.

One such factor shown to increase relationship satisfaction is trait mindfulness, which is defined as ‘an individual’s predisposition to be mindful and attentive to the present moment in a non-judgmental way.’ Recent research is increasingly highlighting the role of forgiveness in improving relationship satisfaction. But, the link between the three (trait mindfulness, forgiveness and relationship satisfaction) has not yet been studied together.

The researchers were interested in understanding if forgiveness acts as a mechanism by which mindfulness relates to relationship satisfaction. They speculated that being mindful would allow individuals to be aware of their own and their partners’ emotions in a non-judgmental and non-reactive way. The increased awareness would make people more forgiving of partner transgressions, thereby enhancing relationship satisfaction.

“…mindfulness increases an individual’s tendency to forgive partner wrongdoings, enhancing relationship satisfaction.”

They based this argument on the interpersonal theory, which posits that, because of the interdependent nature of a relationship, ‘romantic partners influence each other’s tendency to respond to a given situation’. To test this, the researchers recruited 226 couples who had been in an opposite-sex relationship for over two years.

In support of their speculation and extant studies, the researchers found that higher levels of mindfulness are linked with forgiveness, indicating that mindful individuals consider their partners less blameworthy following transgressions. Interestingly, the study also found an association between mindfulness and relationship satisfaction only for female participants. Subsequent research can further explore gender differences between mindfulness and relationship satisfaction.

The researchers also found an indirect link between trait mindfulness, forgiveness and relationship satisfaction, suggesting that forgiveness acts as a catalyst between mindfulness and relationship satisfaction for male and female partners. This is in line with the possibility that mindfulness increases an individual’s tendency to forgive partner wrongdoings, enhancing relationship satisfaction. Another interesting finding was that males with a higher tendency to forgive had female partners with higher levels of relationship satisfaction and vice versa. Put differently, an individual’s ability to be forgiving and mindful influences their partner’s relationship satisfaction along with their ability and willingness to forgive.

This study emphasizes the importance of forgiveness and mindfulness in enhancing relationship satisfaction. It also aptly implies that practicing mindfulness strengthens an individual and their partner’s relationship satisfaction. Apart from personal implications, these findings hold clinical relevance for working with couples facing relationship difficulties. However, future studies can incorporate diverse ethnic identities and relationship types since this study solely focused on White/Caucasian heterosexual couples. It is also vital to consider the context of transgression when studying forgiveness, as it can impact one’s tendency to forgive.

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Arushi Srivastava

Arushi is a recent Master’s graduate in Applied Psychology from Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai, and a prospective Ph.D. applicant. She has worked around mindfulness, relaxation techniques, trauma, and wellbeing, and she is motivated to share the benefits of mindfulness-based practices.

Exploring the Nexus between Mindfulness, Gratitude and Wellbeing Among Youth with the Mediating Role of Hopefulness: A South Asian Perspective (Ali et al., 2022)

Exploring the Nexus between Mindfulness, Gratitude and Wellbeing Among Youth with the Mediating Role of Hopefulness: A South Asian Perspective

(Ali et al., 2022)

By Arushi Srivastava

Emerging studies are highlighting the effectiveness of mindfulness, gratitude and hopefulness as positive psychological tools in helping people cope with anxiety and stress. These practices have also been considered beneficial in enhancing psychological health and well-being. For the past two years, Covid-19 has considerably disrupted significant areas of people’s lives, leading to depression, anxiety, despair, and fear, thereby decreasing individuals’ overall life satisfaction and well-being.

The pandemic underscored numerous causes of mental illness, like global inequality in attaining healthcare due to race, gender, and other factors. The International Labour Organization (ILO) in 2020 reported that unemployment and job losses are highly associated with anxiety and depression. Since 63% of the Pakistani population is youth, the situation becomes even more critical for Pakistan. As reported before the pandemic, 50 million people in Pakistan face psychological disorders. A survey conducted during the pandemic highlighted that 42% of participants reported suffering from depression, high levels of anxiety, and socio-emotional problems, whereas 25% experienced suicidal thoughts.

These alarming statistics were one of the motivations of the research team to delve deeper into understanding whether hope is a critical link between mindfulness, gratitude, and wellbeing. A strong association between mindfulness and gratitude has been established in decreasing psychopathology and enhancing mental well-being. But there is little research that explains the mechanism behind how mindfulness and gratitude work together to enhance mental wellbeing. Therefore, the researchers aimed to study if hopefulness mediates the relationship between mindfulness, gratitude and wellbeing. They based the framework of the study on the broaden-and-build theory, which suggests that positive emotions broaden one’s awareness and encourage positive thoughts and actions, which lead to healthy coping styles. In this context, the authors proposed that gratitude and mindfulness will broaden and build other positive emotions and actions which will enhance wellbeing.

“Whereas current mindfulness conceptualizations have been careful to include gratitude and hope, this study sheds light on the importance of positive emotions and practices like gratitude and mindfulness in eliciting hope, which can synergistically help increase the subjective well-being of individuals.”

The researchers conducted the study on 500 people from Pakistan aged 18-40 years, and the results revealed three interesting findings. Firstly, there was a strong relationship between mindfulness, gratitude and hopefulness. Furthermore, mindfulness was strongly connected with well-being but not with gratitude. Finally, it was found that mindfulness and gratitude increase hopefulness in an individual, and this hopeful state enhances their well-being.

This study is crucial in understanding how mindfulness, gratitude and hopefulness practices can promote well-being in developing healthy coping skills to deal with difficult circumstances. Whereas current mindfulness conceptualizations have been careful to include gratitude and hope, this study sheds light on the importance of positive emotions and practices like gratitude and mindfulness in eliciting hope, which can synergistically help increase the subjective well-being of individuals. However, since this study focused on the youth, future studies can consider older adults as well. This also opens up lines of research interest for people with diverse cultural identities to understand if these findings would still hold across different cultures and societal structures. Additionally, future researchers will have the opportunity to examine the role of positive emotions on physical, intellectual and social resources.

Enjoy? Share with your friends

Arushi Srivastava

Arushi is a recent Master’s graduate in Applied Psychology from Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai, and a prospective Ph.D. applicant. She has worked around mindfulness, relaxation techniques, trauma, and wellbeing, and she is motivated to share the benefits of mindfulness-based practices.

Author: Arushi Srivastava

Arushi Srivastava

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Arushi Srivastava

References

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Trait Mindfulness and Relationship Satisfaction: The Role of Forgiveness Among Couples

“How can I have a more satisfying relationship?”

Enjoy? Share with your friends

Arushi Srivastava

Related Posts

Exploring the Nexus between Mindfulness, Gratitude and Wellbeing Among Youth with the Mediating Role of Hopefulness: A South Asian Perspective

Enjoy? Share with your friends

Arushi Srivastava

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